Best Uzbekistan History Timeline 1991 And when was founded?

The Uzbekistan History Timeline

The Uzbekistan History: The territory of Uzbekistan is one of the hotbeds of human development, the history of its statehood spans nearly 3,000 years. Archaeological findings in Selengur, Kolbuloq and Teshiktash, which are the regions of the monuments, indicate that the population settled in the territory of Uzbekistan occurred several hundred thousand years ago.

ENEOLITH AND BRONZE AGE History of Uzbekistan Timeline

The emergence of farming culture in Central Asia dates back to 3-2 millennia BC. Settlements appeared in the upper part of Amudarya in the second half of the 3rd millennium BC and the first half of the 2nd millennium BC. Local residents were involved in the development and sale of Badakhshan ruby ​​(lazurite). Also, there were contacts between them and the Harappan culture in India at that time. In the 2nd millennium BC, Indo-Iranian (Aryan) tribes migrated through the territory of Central Asia and adjacent deserts to India in the south, Media and Persia in the southeast, and Eastern Turkestan in the east.

Bones of domestic animals, grains of wheat and barley, and agricultural equipment made of stone were found in the Zamonbobo area of ​​the Zarafshan oasis, one of the ancient settlements of farmers. An agricultural settlement of the Eneolithic and Bronze Age was found near the village of Sarazm, not far from Panjikent, and its territory covers an area of ​​more than 90 hectares. Ancient farming settlements were also found in Surkhandarya – Sopollitepa and Jaro’qton. Archaeological monuments found in the Khorezm region and belonging to the Bronze Age are named Tozabogyobsay farming culture. Kokcha, Kavat-3 farming settlements were created in the middle of the 2nd millennium.

Ancient canals were found here. At the beginning of the 1st millennium BC, Amirabad culture was formed during the development of artificial irrigation technology in Khorezm. In this way, the inhabitants of the Fergana Valley gradually moved to a sedentary lifestyle and began to engage in farming. In particular, at the end of the 2nd millennium BC and the beginning of the 1st millennium BC, the Chust farming culture appeared in the Fergana Valley. At the beginning of the 1st millennium, cities such as Samarkand, Marv, Yerkurgan, Ahsikent, Khiva were created. Also, the Zoroastrian Avesta book and heroic epics appeared during this period.

At the end of the 2nd millennium BC and the beginning of the 1st millennium BC, the Chust farming culture appeared in the Fergana Valley. At the beginning of the 1st millennium, cities such as Samarkand, Marv, Yerkurgan, Ahsikent, Khiva were created. Also, the Zoroastrian Avesta book and heroic epics appeared during this period. At the end of the 2nd millennium BC and the beginning of the 1st millennium BC, the Chust farming culture appeared in the Fergana Valley. At the beginning of the 1st millennium, cities such as Samarkand, Marv, Yerkurgan, Ahsikent, Khiva were created. Also, the Zoroastrian Avesta book and heroic epics appeared during this period.

THE ANCIENT KINGDOM OF BACTRIA: Uzbekistan History Timeline

One of the ancient state structures in Central Asia is the Ancient Bactrian state. Ancient sources indicate that a large kingdom of Bactria existed in the 8th century BC. In the Avesta, its name is Bakhdi, in the monuments of Bihistun, it is written as Bactrish, and in the literature of antiquity, it is written as Baktriana. There were contacts between ancient Bactria and other countries of the world at that time – Assyria, New Babylon, Media, and the principality of India. According to historical sources, the Assyrians attacked Bactria in the 9th-7th centuries BC, when Assyrian rule (hegemony) was established.

This movement is known in history as the Assyrian Campaign. The main reason for this march was aimed at establishing control over Bactrian lapis lazuli.

In the 7th-6th centuries BC, the territory of the Ancient Bactrian kingdom included the oases of Surkhan, Kashkadarya and Zarafshan, the lands of Margiyona and Sugd. Various products made of gold, stone and bronze by Bactrian masters were very popular in China, Persia and Europe. Large cities of Bactria are located in Kyziltepa, Yer-Kurgon, Uzunkyr and Afrosiyob regions. At that time, it was natural for a tourist visiting Bactria to be attracted by the majestic minarets towering over houses, craftsmen’s workshops, and farm buildings.

According to Kursi Ruf, “The nature of Bactria is rich and diverse. In some places, trees and vines produce very rich crops, fertile lands drink water from many springs. Wheat is planted on soft lands, and the rest are pastures for livestock.”

ANCIENT CHORASM History Uzbekistan

The lands of Central Asia between the two rivers have been under the control of Khorezm since ancient times. Khorezm’s name is given as Khvariazm in the Avesta, Khwarezmish in the Bihistun inscriptions, Khorasmia in the historical books of Arrian and Strabo. The history of Khorezm culture, which was destroyed by the Arab invaders in the 8th century, dates back to 1292 BC. Khorezm was considered the holy land of Avesta, the center of ancient culture for the whole region. Already in the VII-VI centuries BC, there were state structures in the territory of Khorezm.

Archaeological evidence indicates that there was a powerful irrigation system adjacent to the Amudarya River as early as the second quarter of the first millennium BC. It is natural that strong centralized management is needed to establish large canals in Khorezm. Khorezm was conquered by the Persian kingdom in the middle of the 6th century BC. The Persians transported various precious stones, jewelry and pottery products from Khorezm. The best craftsmen were also taken to the court of Persian kings. In the 5th-4th centuries BC, Khorezm was freed from the Persian kingdom and regained its independence. Khorezm writing appeared in IV-III centuries BC.

The Khan’s residence – Turpoq Castle, an ancient mausoleum and an observatory. According to Greek sources, in 329-328 BC, Khorezm Khan Farisman signed a peace treaty with Alexander the Great of Greece (Alexander the Macedonian). transported jewelry and pottery products. The best craftsmen were also taken to the court of Persian kings. In the 5th-4th centuries BC, Khorezm was freed from the Persian kingdom and regained its independence. Khorezm writing appeared in IV-III centuries BC. The Khan’s residence – Turpoq Castle, an ancient mausoleum and an observatory. According to Greek sources, in 329-328 BC, Khorezm Khan Farisman signed a peace treaty with Alexander the Great of Greece (Alexander the Macedonian).

transported jewelry and pottery products. The best craftsmen were also taken to the court of Persian kings. In the 5th-4th centuries BC, Khorezm was freed from the Persian kingdom and regained its independence. Khorezm writing appeared in IV-III centuries BC. The Khan’s residence – Turpoq Castle, an ancient mausoleum and an observatory. According to Greek sources, in 329-328 BC, Khorezm Khan Farisman signed a peace treaty with Alexander the Great of Greece (Alexander the Macedonian). The Khan’s residence – Turpoq Castle, an ancient mausoleum and an observatory.

According to Greek sources, in 329-328 BC, Khorezm Khan Farisman signed a peace treaty with Alexander the Great of Greece (Alexander the Macedonian). The Khan’s residence – Turpoq Castle, an ancient mausoleum and an observatory. According to Greek sources, in 329-328 BC, Khorezm Khan Farisman signed a peace treaty with Alexander the Great of Greece (Alexander the Macedonian).

ISKANDAR ZULQARNAYN’S MARCH TO CENTRAL ASIA

In 334 BC, Alexander the Great began his march to Asia. He conquered Asia Minor, Syria, Phenicia, Egypt and Iran, and in the spring of 329 crossed the Indian Kush mountain and attacked Central Asia. Bessus, the ruler of Bactria and Sogdiana (he received the status of king and the name Artaxerxes) realizes that it is futile to resist Zulqarnain. As Alexander the Great conquers Bactrian fortresses one by one, he leaves his garrison in Marokand and marches towards Sirdarya – the land of the Sakas. But along the way, he faces unprecedented resistance from the local population.

In one of the clashes between the forces of the two sides, Alexander the Great was seriously wounded. As the Greeks used to say, “the barbarians living on the banks of the river” inflicted great losses on the garrison of Zulqarnain. At the same time, the Sogdians under the leadership of Spitamen rise against Alexander’s troops. The Bactrians also came and joined the Sogds.

Spitamen fought fiercely against Alexander and stopped his garrison in Morocco. The Macedonian garrison immediately began to build a fort on the banks of the Syr Darya. This fortress is called Far Alexandria. Alexander the Great manages to make peace with the Sakas. Then he throws his main force against Spitamen. However, the brutal actions carried out by the Greek-Macedonian troops in the territory of Sogd during the years 329-328 did not give the result expected by Alexander the Great. After two years of fruitless and unsuccessful efforts, he changes his tactics.

In this regard, Kursi Rufus writes: “Iskander captured various cities and lands for those who resisted submission to him.” In this way, Alexander the Great was able to turn the local nobles towards him, and with their support he formed a military contingent consisting of Bactrians and Sogdians. In the fall of 328, a decisive battle took place between Alexander and Spitamenes. Spitamen loses this battle. According to historical data, Spitamen, who lost the battle, was executed by his allies.

After conquering the fortresses of Horion and Oksariat in the Hisar mountains, Alexander married Oksariat’s daughter Rakhshona (Roksana, Ravshanak) and thus became a relative of the local elite. Alexander appoints one of the Sogdians who went over to his side (according to some sources, his name was Oropius) as the king of Sogd. In this way, his rule over Central Asia is established. In the summer of 327, he began his march towards India through the Hindukush mountain.

THE STATES OF THE SELAUKIANS

As a result of Spitamen’s death and Alexander’s peace with the Sogd-Bactrian rulers, in 327, Central Asia came under the control of Alexander the Great. A military contingent of local elites joins Alexander the Great’s army. In 323, upon hearing the news of the death of Alexander the Great, the Greek settlers in Sogd and Bactria gathered 20,000 foot soldiers and 3,000 horsemen to return to their homeland. But to stop them, Alexander’s commander Perdicus arrives and disarms and punishes the soldiers who are ready to flee. The ruler (strapi) of Sogd, who expressed sympathy for the Greek soldiers who were ready to return to their homeland, was released from his post.

He will be replaced by Philip of Macedonia. For a certain period of time, he ruled both straps – Sogdiana and Bactria. After 315, all the straps appointed from among the local people were replaced by Greeks and Macedonians. Only Oxariatus (Alexander’s father-in-law) and Atropates (Perdicus’ father-in-law) were left in office. In 312, one of Alexander’s commanders, Salak, acquired Babylonia. Soon he expanded his lands to the Syr Darya and Indus rivers. And his son Antiochus I (born from the marriage of Apama, daughter of Salacus and Spitamenes) owned a large part of Alexander’s territories in Asia. In the territory of Central Asia, two straps appeared. It included Sogdiya, Bactria and Margiya.

Khorezm did not submit to the Salakians. Only Oxariatus (Alexander’s father-in-law) and Atropates (Perdicus’ father-in-law) were left in office. In 312, one of Alexander’s commanders, Salak, acquired Babylonia. Soon he expanded his lands to the Syr Darya and Indus rivers. And his son Antiochus I (born from the marriage of Apama, daughter of Salacus and Spitamenes) owned a large part of Alexander’s territories in Asia. In the territory of Central Asia, two straps appeared. It included Sogdiya, Bactria and Margiya. Khorezm did not submit to the Salakians. Only Oxariatus (Alexander’s father-in-law) and Atropates (Perdicus’ father-in-law) were left in office.

In 312, one of Alexander’s commanders, Salak, acquired Babylonia. Soon he expanded his lands to the Syr Darya and Indus rivers. And his son Antiochus I (born from the marriage of Apama, daughter of Salacus and Spitamenes) owned a large part of Alexander’s territories in Asia. In the territory of Central Asia, two straps appeared. It included Sogdiya, Bactria and Margiya. Khorezm did not submit to the Salakians. In the territory of Central Asia, two straps appeared. It included Sogdiya, Bactria and Margiya. Khorezm did not submit to the Salakians. In the territory of Central Asia, two straps appeared. It included Sogdiya, Bactria and Margiya. Khorezm did not submit to the Salakians.

Khorezm gained its independence during the time of Alexander, the last representative of the Ahmanids. Salak and Antiochus paid special attention to strengthening their positions in Central Asia. Many castles and cities were built and were mostly populated by Greeks. According to historical sources, Salavk built 75 cities. One of the most distant cities was the city of Antioch, located behind Jaxarte. According to assumptions, this city is located in the territory of the present Tashkent region or in the Fergana valley. The mint of the Seleucids was preserved in Bactria until the 60s of the III century BC.

Gold and silver coins were minted in this mint. During the reign of one of the Seleucid rulers, Antiochus II (261-247 BC), his Bactrian strapper Diodotus minted his own coins based on Seleucid coins. This is a sign that he had some autonomy under the rule of the Seleucids. The economic life of Bactria, Sogdiana and other regions in Central Asia was very different from that of the western regions of the Seleucid state.

GRECO-BACTRIA KINGDOM

In 256 BC, Parthia, Bactria and Sogdiana separated from the Seleucid state. Bactrian strap Diodotus proclaimed himself king and began a struggle for hegemony in the region. In response, the Arshahids gained power in Parthia. Sogdiana came under the rule of Bactria. In 230 BC, Euthydemus, strap of Sogdiana, overthrew Diodotus’ successor. There were constant wars between Greco-Bactria and Parthia over the control of trade routes. In 209-208 BC, the Seleucid ruler Antiochus III the Great began to march east to restore the Seleucid kingdom. In 207, he defeated Parthia and launched a military campaign against Greco-Bactria.

Antiochus’ troops defeat Euthydemus and besiege Bactria, the capital of Greco-Bactria. The siege lasted two years. Euthydemus finally manages to conclude a peace treaty with Antiochus. In turn, he gives Antiochus all his war elephants. Euthydemus’ son Demetrius marries the Seleucid queen. As a result of the heavy losses inflicted by the Romans on the Seleucids in the Battle of Magnesia, the Greco-Bactrian Kingdom had the opportunity to subjugate the southern principalities, which were the allies of the Seleucids. In 187 BC, Demetrius, the successor of his father Euthydemus, conquered Arachosia and went to India.

As a result of the heavy losses inflicted by the Romans on the Seleucids in the Battle of Magnesia, the Greco-Bactrian Kingdom had the opportunity to subjugate the southern principalities, which were the allies of the Seleucids. In 187 BC, Demetrius, the successor of his father Euthydemus, conquered Arachosia and went to India. As a result of the heavy losses inflicted by the Romans on the Seleucids in the Battle of Magnesia, the Greco-Bactrian Kingdom had the opportunity to subjugate the southern principalities, which were the allies of the Seleucids. In 187 BC, Demetrius, the successor of his father Euthydemus, conquered Arachosia and went to India.

Demetrius stays with his troops in Northern India for a long time. Taking advantage of this, one of his generals – Yevkraditus, won the power of Bactria in 171. The kingdom of Eucradit is known in history as the “kingdom of countless cities”. According to Chinese sources, the Yuechi arrived in Yettisoy (Semirechya) in 165 BC. They went to the shores of Amudarya through the Syrdarya. They also managed to occupy Bactria. In 155, Eucraditus was killed by his own son during one of the next campaigns. In the same period, the Greco-Indian kingdom was formed. 141-128 was the period of decline of the Greco-Bactrian kingdom.

It is estimated that After the conquest of Bactria by the Yueches, king Heliocles retained power in Paropamisa or Arachosia. Central Asia was part of the Hellenic world for two hundred years. This period left a significant mark in the history of Central Asia. Sogd and Bactria became strapiums relying on Hellenic-Macedonian military groups. New cities such as Herat and Marv appeared. Coins of Greek standards were minted in the region. The pantheon of Greek gods, Greek literature and theater entered the region. A mutual synthesis of local and Greek culture took place. Coins of Greek standards were minted in the region.

The pantheon of Greek gods, Greek literature and theater entered the region. A mutual synthesis of local and Greek culture took place. Coins of Greek standards were minted in the region. The pantheon of Greek gods, Greek literature and theater entered the region. A mutual synthesis of local and Greek culture took place.

KANGYUI

The Chinese historian Si Ma-hsiang mentions in his diaries the nomadic states of Kangyu or Cangjui and Kangha, which had “traditions and customs similar to those of the Yueji”. The Kangha state is not mentioned in the writings of ancient historians, but the Avesta and Mahabharata books provide detailed information about the Kankis along with the Sakas and Tochars. In much later Chinese chronicles, it is said that all the states of Bukhara, Shahrisabz, Kattakurgan suburbs, the Tashkent oasis and the northern part of Khorezm, located in the north of the Amudarya, were dependent on the Kangyu state.

According to Chinese sources, the leaders of the Kangyu state were called “Chao-wu”. It’s also likely to be “djabgu” in general, as that’s how it’s pronounced in Chinese transcripts. The power of the Kangyu state reached its peak in the second half of the 2nd century BC – the 1st century AD. The short-term period of tension of the Kangyu state, which was dominated by the Yueche in the south and the Huns in the north, ended with the weakening of the Yueche kingdom in Bactria. In the 2nd and 1st centuries BC, there were attempts to mint coins and exchange money in the state of Kangyu.

In this process, coins used during the Greco-Bactrian rule were used as copies. The level of material and cultural development of Kangyuy can be seen in the results of excavations carried out in Khorezm, especially in the area of ​​Janbas Castle located on the right bank of the city. The 200×170-meter fortress is surrounded by a 10-11 meter high raw brick wall. A wide street runs from the gate to the center of the fortress. At the end of the street, the remains of a sacred fire building with a circular metal platform for offering sacrifices have been excavated. During the Kangyu period, people belonged to different religions: Zoroastrianism, the Anahita stream, and the Mithra stream in the form of a horse.

One of the most important advances in military technology associated with the Kangyu culture during this period was the tactical techniques that became widespread later: for example, the compact formation of armor-clad horses and armor-clad riders in battle. Riders are armed with bows, spears and swords. It is still unclear whether Kangyu was part of the Kushan Empire. According to Chinese sources, Kangyu maintained its independence even at the beginning of our era and ruled over the Yansai (Aors-Alans) and other tribes.

THE COUNTRY OF THE KUSHANS

The invasion of the Greek-Bactrian state in the middle of the 2nd century BC by the Yuechjes led to the complete destruction of this state. The first possessions of the Yuechzeys were in the northern regions of Bactria (modern southern regions of Uzbekistan and Tajikistan). The state of Kushan arose as a result of the rise of Kushan, one of the emirates of the Yueche state, in the first half of the 1st century AD. Kushan is probably the name of one of the Yueche tribes, pronounced Guyshuan in Chinese. The founder of the state was a yabgu (emir). Later, under the rule of King Kudjula Kadphiz, the Kushans conquered much of present-day Afghanistan and Pakistan.

During the reign of his successor, Vime Tok, a large part of India was added to the Kushan possessions. The prosperity of the Kushan state coincided with the reign of Kanishka (about 78-123 AD). At that time, the capital was moved from Bactria to Peshawar, and the country’s borders extended to India and Khotan. The borders of the Kushan state in Central Asia passed through the peaks of the Hisar mountain range in the south of present-day Uzbekistan. In the high mountain gorges (Darband) there, strong border structures were built.

During those times, new cities were built on the borders of the state, and trade relations were established with India, China, and the Roman Empire. During excavations in Pompeii, Cushon coins and bone figures made by a Cushon craftsman were found. Architecture was highly developed during the Kushan period. Special attention was paid to the construction of palaces and temples. In the palace of the Kushan rulers in Kholchayan and in the old Buddhist temples in Termiz and Dalvarzin, there are well-preserved examples of wall drawings and sculptures made with high artistic taste.

During the excavations carried out in Holchayon, Dalvarzin and Ayritom, bronze vessels, magnificent shagamsupas, mirrors and jewelry were found, testifying to the high skill of Kushon craftsmen. Agriculture was the backbone of the empire’s economy. In order to increase the productivity of the land, various fertilizers are widely used. Foothills and deserts were used for cattle breeding.

During the excavations in Termez, letters written in Aramaic were found. The Kushan cursive script was characterized by its sharp-angled, square, and circular letters, and was very common at the time. During Kanishka’s reign, Buddhism entered the Kushan state and soon became the state religion. But at the same time Zoroastrianism and the local religions of Central Asia, India, Iran, Greece and Egypt do not lose their power. The Kushan state ended at the end of the first half of the III century AD. Bactria and Tokharistan were included in the Sasanian Empire under special ownership rights. This empire was ruled by members of the Sasanian dynasty, who held the title Kushonshah.

THE STATE OF THE EPHTHALIANS

The Ephthalite state was formed in a part of the territory of the fragmented Kushan state. The main part of the population was engaged in agriculture, while the rest continued the nomadic cattle-breeding lifestyle. The first information about the Eftalites began to be recorded in written sources from the year 457, that is, after their king Vakhshunvar Chaganiyan conquered Takharistan and Badakhshan. Different sources describe a vivid but conflicting picture of the battles that took place between the Sassanid state of Iran and the Hephthalites. The Sassanid king Peroz, afraid of the ever-expanding state of the Hephthalites, launched military operations against them, but was captured.

The Sassanid king appealed to Byzantium for help and announced that the invasion of the nomads was a threat to this state as well. The ruler of Byzantium paid compensation and freed Peroz from captivity.

Peroz promises to hand over the Tolkan border town to the Heftalites, but does not break his promise and organizes a second military campaign. Peroz is defeated this time and leaves his infant son captive to the Hephthalites and pays a large indemnity for two years. In 484, Peroz made his third military campaign. This time he and his army fell into a special wolf prepared by the Hephthalites and died. After the Ephthalites completely crushed the army of Peroz, they imposed a large tribute on the people of Iran and occupied the city of Marv. Then they occupied the Kabul Valley and Punjab, conquered Qaroshar, Kuchu, Kashkar and Khotan.

Thus, they are Central Asia, eastern Iran, They will establish a single powerful state that includes the northern part of India and Eastern Turkestan. Iran continued to pay tribute to the Hephthalites during the reign of Kavade, the son of Peroz, who spent his childhood in captivity under the Hephthalites. According to the Byzantine historian Procopius, the Hephthalites were “ruled by a single king and in their relations with each other and with neighboring states, they followed the criteria of justice, not lagging behind the Byzantines and Persians.” The Ephthalites, the owners of the “Silk Road”, actively participated in international trade.

They traded with Iran, Byzantium, India and China. The epic narratives about the war of the Ephthalites against the soldiers of Peroz are given in the “Shahnoma”. The story of the Hephthalite king Gatferd depicts the struggle of the Hephthalites against the Turkic peoples. According to Academician V. Barthold, the image of Gatferd can be seen in the image of Catulph, a historical person mentioned in Byzantine sources. Catulph fled to Iran under the pretext of revenge for the insult inflicted on his wife by the king and sold his country to the Turks. The Ephthalites united many peoples politically, and this explains the existence of many religious sects and sects within this state.

 Zoroastrianism has merged with local sects – Anaita, Siyavusha, Mitra. Buddhism is also common. Catulph fled to Iran under the pretext of revenge for the insult inflicted on his wife by the king and sold his country to the Turks. The Ephthalites united many peoples politically, and this explains the existence of many religious sects and sects within this state. Zoroastrianism has merged with local sects – Anaita, Siyavusha, Mitra.

Buddhism is also common. Catulph fled to Iran under the pretext of revenge for the insult inflicted on his wife by the king and sold his country to the Turks. The Ephthalites united many peoples politically, and this explains the existence of many religious sects and sects within this state. Zoroastrianism has merged with local sects – Anaita, Siyavusha, Mitra. Buddhism is also common.

TURKISH PATRONAGE

In the middle of the 6th century, the Turkic tribes of Altai united with the neighboring tribes and founded “the most powerful nomadic state before the Mongol era” – the Turkic Khanate. Two brothers, Tomin and Istemi, ruled a huge state. While Tumin expanded his dependent lands in the eastern part of the Khaganate, his brother Istemi united the tribes of Yettisuv in the western part of the country and the neighboring regions of Eastern Turkestan. The expansion of the state to the West caused its conflict with the lands of the Ephthalite state. In 563-567 years, the Turks crushed the Hephthalite state and clashed with the Sassanids of Iran on the banks of the Amudarya.

While the Turks and Iran were fighting a common enemy in the form of the Hephthalites, they were friendly and even Shahanshah Khusrov Anushervan married a Turkish princess. After the Turks crushed the Ephtalites, a mutual conflict arose between them and Iran. The Turks’ desire to gain access to important trade routes has led to strained relations with Iran. The visit of Istemi’s trade ambassador to Iran ended in failure, and the second and last members of the embassy were poisoned. After that, the Turks decided to start a war against Iran in alliance with Byzantium. In 568-569 years, the first embassy visit to Istanbul led by Maniax was completed successfully.

The Turks’ desire to gain access to important trade routes has led to strained relations with Iran. The visit of Istemi’s trade ambassador to Iran ended in failure, and the second and last members of the embassy were poisoned. After that, the Turks decided to start a war against Iran in alliance with Byzantium. In 568-569 years, the first embassy visit to Istanbul led by Maniax was completed successfully. The Turks’ desire to gain access to important trade routes has led to strained relations with Iran.

The visit of Istemi’s trade ambassador to Iran ended in failure, and the second and last members of the embassy were poisoned. After that, the Turks decided to start a war against Iran in alliance with Byzantium. In 568-569 years, the first embassy visit to Istanbul led by Maniax was completed successfully.

The mutual war between Byzantium and Iran, diverting their attention to the Khaganate, created an opportunity for the rapid rise of the Turkic semi-nomadic state. The Turks made several successful marches to China, which was weakened by internal conflicts, and managed to obtain a large annual tribute of silk fabrics. In 588, the Turkic ruler Kara Churin attacked Iran in alliance with Byzantium and the Khazars, but was defeated and killed by the Sasanian general Bahrom Chubin. This defeat led to the decline of the khakhanate and its separation into eastern and western lands in the 80s of the 6th century. In the first half of the 7th century, there was an increase in the life of the Western Khaganate.

Its borders reached the banks of the Indus. Trade relations with China and Iran are widely developed. Trade caravans extended to the oases of Eastern Turkestan along the Marv-Chorjoi-Bukhara-Samarkand-Choch-Talas-Suyab route. Along the way, the caravans came across Sughd possessions that allowed them to travel quickly. Around 630, the Chinese, who were allies of the Turks until recently, inflicted a crushing defeat on them. At the end of the 6th century, a new powerful enemy – the Arabs who subjugated Central Asia – began to invade from the west. The Western Turkic khanate was completely disintegrated in 704 after the Yettisuv land came under the control of Turgesh.

Along the way, the caravans came across Sughd possessions that allowed them to travel quickly. Around 630, the Chinese, who were allies of the Turks until recently, inflicted a crushing defeat on them. At the end of the 6th century, a new powerful enemy – the Arabs who subjugated Central Asia – began to invade from the west. The Western Turkic khanate was completely disintegrated in 704 after the Yettisuv land came under the control of Turgesh. Along the way, the caravans came across Sughd possessions that allowed them to travel quickly. Around 630, the Chinese, who were allies of the Turks until recently, inflicted a crushing defeat on them.

At the end of the 6th century, a new powerful enemy – the Arabs who subjugated Central Asia – began to invade from the west. The Western Turkic khanate was completely disintegrated in 704 after the Yettisuv land came under the control of Turgesh.

SOGD

In the IV-VIII centuries, the Sogds were the main intermediaries in the trade of the Far East, Central Asia and the Middle East, and organized regular international caravan trade along the entire Great Silk Road. Sogd in those times consisted of a commonwealth of Bekliks and free cities, among which Samarkand, Maimurg, Kesh, Nakhlab, Ishtikhan, Kushania, Bukhara, Amul and Andkhoi stood out. All the way to China, through Khotan in the south and Eastern Turkestan to the north of Lob Nor and Yettisuv, Sogdian domains were formed and existed until the 12th century.

The largest possessions of the Sogds in Turkestan and China existed in cities such as Kucha, Chanan, Lanzhou, Dunhuang, Loyan, where they lived as separate communities. In the 4th century, Dunhuang alone had a Sogdian community of about 1,000 people. The eastern gates of Samarkand are called “China”. International trade relations were controlled by wealthy Sogdian houses in Samarkand, Paykend and other large cities. They gave loans and managed trade agreements through their intermediaries.

It is recorded in the history of the Tang Dynasty that during the reign of Kan, “in order for a newborn baby boy to have a sweet tooth and hold money tightly, stone honey was applied to his tongue and glue to his palms… When he was twenty years old, he went to the neighboring countries and went wherever he found interest.” . A unique and open Sogdian culture, combining the achievements of the West and the East, was formed through long journeys, acquaintance with the folk crafts and traditions of China, India, Iran, and Turkey.

The need to secure the center of Sogdian crafts and trade routes – Samarkand, Panjikent, Paykent, Bukhara and Varakhshi – determined the political direction aimed at establishing alliances with powerful states. In the 6th century, Sogd became part of the Ephtalian state, later the Turkic Khanate. Since 630, it has recognized the rule of China’s Tang Dynasty. During the rise of the Khaganate, the Sogds had the opportunity to trade with the silk that the Turks received from China as a tribute. In the 70s of the 6th century, by order of the Turkish rulers, the Sogdian merchant Maniakh conducted negotiations on trade guarantees, first with the Shahanshah of Iran, and then with the Emperor of Byzantium.

In the Middle Ages, the Sogdian language became the main language of communication on the Great Silk Road. Buddhists, Christians, Manichaeans translated their religious texts into Sogdian. In doing so, they used their own written traditions: the Indian alphabet from the Buddhists, the Aramaic printing from the Manichaeans, the early common correspondence from the Christian-Syrians, and the alphabets of religious beliefs from the Nestorians and Jacobites. However, they could not replace the early Sogdian script, which was based on Aramaic printing and was later used by the Uyghurs.

Examples of this writing can be found with the help of “old letters” sent from the estates in Dunhuang and documents found on Mount Mug in the Zarafshan Valley.

THE ARAB CONQUEST

In the 7th century, after irreconcilable intertribal wars, the small city of Medina became the center of political union of Arab tribes. The leaders of the nomadic tribes, who directed their forces towards the neighboring oases and cities, quickly converged around Medina. The Arabs won one victory after another and quickly conquered Syria, Palestine, Iran, and in 651 they reached Marv and occupied it without a fight. Arab victories are explained more by the weakness and disintegration of the conquered countries than by their original strength. In 674, Ubaydullah ibn Ziyad, who was sent by Caliph Muawiya, was the first to cross Amudarya.

He besieged and occupied Poykand. Having won over the queen of Bukhara, he took away a lot of booty from the city – weapons, clothes, gold, silver and many captives. The Sogdian rulers Kesha and Nesefa decide to help the Bukharans, but, Narshahi recounts, the Arab army terrifies the Sogdians, so they leave the battlefield. According to Arab historian Belazuri, the captives of Bukhara were turned into slaves. The people of Erksevar did not want to accept their fate. They broke into the palace of Said ibn Usman and killed him. In 704, Qutayba ibn Muslim was appointed as the viceroy of Khurasan.

He aims to completely conquer Movarounnahr, that is, the lands on the right bank of the Amudarya. In 705-706, he occupied Balkh, Poykand, but faced strong resistance from the Sogdis and Turks led by Bogdis Nizaq Tarhun and was forced to retreat.

In 709, Qutayba managed to make a turning point. Tarhun will be crushed and executed, and Bukhara will be occupied without much difficulty. Soon after, Qutayba took over Shuman, Nasaf and Kesh. It seemed that all possibilities were available for the Arabs to attack Samarkand, the heart of Sogd, but Qutayba was busy with affairs in Khorezm for almost two years. In 711, Qutayba helped Khorezmshah regain the throne, and Khorezm became subordinate to the Caliphate. In 712, Qutayba marched to Samarkand. Governor of Samarkand Gurek strongly opposes it.

The Arab army uses siege weapons and breaching weapons. After a bitter battle, Qutayba finally captured the city and forced the people of Samarkand to pay a heavy tribute. Qutayba continued his military campaigns, He conquers Khojand and Ferghana, fights against Shosh, but his attack is repulsed by the Turkic Bahadir Tudun, the ruler of Shosh. In 715, knowing about the death of Caliph Walid, Qutayba revolted, but was killed by one of his relatives in Ferghana.

STATE OF THE SOMANIANS

In the 20s of the 9th century, Asad ibn Saman and his sons showed their loyalty to the caliphate in Mowarounnahr. succeeded in suppressing the uprising of Rafi ibn Lays. Their grandfather Somon came from a peasant family of Fergana (there are also assumptions that he was from Bal or Termez regions). In exchange for loyal services to Khalif al-Ma’mun, the viceroy of Khurasan, Hassan ibn Abbad (819-821 AD), appointed the sons of Asad ibn Saman as governors of important regions and cities. Samarkand will be given to Noah, Ferghana to Ahmad, Shosh and Ustrushan to Yahya, Khirot to Ilyas. Noah was the head of the family, and after his death, this authority passed to Ahmad ibn Asad.

During Ahmad’s reign, the Samanis achieved independence from the Caliphate and the Takhiris. Ahmad ibn Asad family subjugated all the territories of the Samanis, Builds a huge state in Movarounnahr. Ahmad’s policy was continued by his son Nasr, who ruled in Samarkand. Taking into account the influence of the Somanites, in 875 Caliph Mutadim handed over the administration of Movarounnahr, the capital of which was Samarkand, to Nasr ibn Ahmad (875-892 AD). Nasr’s brother Ismail (892-907), who ruled Bokhara from 874

In 892, he became the emir of Movarounnahr. In 900, Ismail Samoni defeated Saffarid Amr ibn Leis in a battle near Bal. As a result, Khurasan and later Sistan were included in the Samanid state. Khurasan was ruled by a Samani viceroy at Nishapur until 999. Ahmad ibn Ismail (907-914) inherits the state of his father Ismail. In the 30s and 40s of the 10th century, during the reign of Samani Nasr II (914-943), the doctrine of Karmatism spread widely in the country, and his son Nuh I (943-954) fought against it. Craftsmanship, construction, and culture flourished in Movarounnahr during the Somonides period. Caravan trade begins to gain importance.

The Great Silk Road will be revived and its new branches will appear. Cities will be rebuilt. Weaving, pottery, copper, new centers of carpentry are emerging. Caravanserai, mosques and madrassas are built in cities. In that period, the great lexicographers al-Khorazmi, al-Farghani, Abu Nasr Farabi, Ibn Sina, Abu Rayhan Beruni, Sharshahi and others lived and created. Since 945, unrest began in Khurasan. During the reign of the Samanids Abd al-Malik ibn Nuh (954-961) and his brother Mansur (961-976), Mansur’s son – Nuh II (976-977), Nuh II’s son – Abd al-Malik II (997-999) the state gradually begins to weaken.

In 999, the Somonites lost Movarounnahr to the Turkish rulers – the Karakhanids, and thus the Somonites state was terminated. Al-Muntasir, the brother of Abdul-Malik II, the last ruler of the Saminids, was killed in 1005. In that period, the great lexicographers al-Khorazmi, al-Farghani, Abu Nasr Farabi, Ibn Sina, Abu Rayhan Beruni, Sharshahi and others lived and created. Since 945, unrest began in Khurasan. During the reign of the Samanids Abd al-Malik ibn Nuh (954-961) and his brother Mansur (961-976), Mansur’s son – Nuh II (976-977), Nuh II’s son – Abd al-Malik II (997-999) the state gradually begins to weaken.

In 999, the Somonites lost Movarounnahr to the Turkish rulers – the Karakhanids, and thus the Somonites state was terminated. Al-Muntasir, the brother of Abdul-Malik II, the last ruler of the Saminids, was killed in 1005. In that period, the great lexicographers al-Khorazmi, al-Farghani, Abu Nasr Farabi, Ibn Sina, Abu Rayhan Beruni, Sharshahi and others lived and created. Since 945, unrest began in Khurasan. During the reign of the Samanids Abd al-Malik ibn Nuh (954-961) and his brother Mansur (961-976), Mansur’s son – Nuh II (976-977), Nuh II’s son – Abd al-Malik II (997-999) the state gradually begins to weaken.

In 999, the Somonites lost Movarounnahr to the Turkish rulers – the Karakhanids, and thus the Somonites state was terminated. Al-Muntasir, the brother of Abdul-Malik II, the last ruler of the Saminids, was killed in 1005. During the reign of the Samanids Abd al-Malik ibn Nuh (954-961) and his brother Mansur (961-976), Mansur’s son – Nuh II (976-977), Nuh II’s son – Abd al-Malik II (997-999) the state gradually begins to weaken. In 999, the Somonites lost Movarounnahr to the Turkish rulers – the Karakhanids, and thus the Somonites state was terminated.

Al-Muntasir, the brother of Abdul-Malik II, the last ruler of the Saminids, was killed in 1005. During the reign of the Samanids Abd al-Malik ibn Nuh (954-961) and his brother Mansur (961-976), Mansur’s son – Nuh II (976-977), Nuh II’s son – Abd al-Malik II (997-999) the state gradually begins to weaken. In 999, the Somonites lost Movarounnahr to the Turkish rulers – the Karakhanids, and thus the Somonites state was terminated. Al-Muntasir, the brother of Abdul-Malik II, the last ruler of the Saminids, was killed in 1005.

STATE OF KARAKHANIS

At the end of the 10th century, the state of the Karakhanids headed by “Podshah Yagma” or “Elikkhan” was established in Yettisuv and Eastern Turkestan regions. This state included various Turkic nationalities – the Karluqs, the Chigils, the Argys, the Yagmas and other peoples, who accepted Islam before 960. In 992, the Karakhanid army under the leadership of Elikhan Bugra invaded the territory of Movarounnahr. The victory of the Karakhanids was caused by the secret alliance between Bugra Khan and the Samani governor of Khurasan, Abuali Simjur, and the betrayal of the commander Faiq.

As a result, the Karakhanids occupied Bukhara without a fight, and Amir Nuh was forced to flee to Chorjoi. But Bugrakhan fell ill and died on his way to his homeland Koshgar. The Karakhanids return from Bukhara with a large booty. Elikhan Nasr, the new leader of the Karakhanids, launched another attack on Bukhara. In 995-996, Nuh II repels the Karakhanid attack with the help of Sabuh Tegin. In 999, the Karakhanids again occupied Bukhara and captured the emir Abdul Malik II and the king’s family.

This situation leads to a decisive decision of power in Movarounnahr in favor of the Karakhanids. The state of the Karakhanids included Eastern Turkestan, Yettisuv, Shosh, Fergana and ancient Sogd lands, stretching from Koshgar to Amudarya. Until 1005, al-Muntasir, the last representative of the Samanis, successfully fought with the Qarakhanids, but the opponent’s large army ensured the final victory. With the fatwa of the caliph of Baghdad, Elikhan Nasr bin Ali established his rule in Mowarounnahr. After conquering Movarounnahr, the Karakhanids destroyed the peasant class and transferred their land and water to the state.

After the death of Elikhan Nasr in 1012, his brother Ali Tegin succeeded him. The Karakhanids waged regular wars against the Ghaznavids for the lands of the Amudarya Valley. At the end of the 11th century, they became subordinate to the Seljuk state. The capital of Elikhan was first located in Uzgen, then moved to Samarkand. Buoro was also subject to Samarkand. The Karakhanids carried out many construction works in Samarkand, Bukhara, Binkent, built palaces, mosques and madrasas, and contributed to maintaining and strengthening the influence of the Muslim religion.

THE STATE OF THE KHORAZMSHAH

In the 11th century and the first half of the 12th century, Khorezm was part of the Seljuk state (founded in the ruins of the Ghaznavid state in the 11th century). The rise of Khorezm in the 11th century is inextricably linked with the policy of the Khorezmshahs belonging to the Turkic dynasty. This dynasty was founded by the Seljuk emir’s tastdar Anushtegin. Anushtegin Malikshah (1072-1092), who was the captain of the Sultan’s court, reached a high rank in the court.

The court headed by him was also entrusted with the management of Khorezm. Anushtegin’s grandson Otsiz, who was awarded the restored title of Khoramshah, actively worked for the independence of Khorezm. Khorezmshah Otsiz (1127-1156) fought successfully against Seljuk Sultan Sanjar. He is an outstanding diplomat and a strict military leader, and conducts an independent foreign policy. For example,

At the beginning of the 12th century, Central Asia was invaded by new conquerors from the east – Karakhitai. Sultan Sanjar came to the aid of his close relative, Khan of the Karakhanids of Samarkand, Mahmud. The battle against the Karakhitas near Samarkand ended with the complete defeat of Sanjar. Khorezmshah skilfully took advantage of the defeat of Otsiz Sanjar and occupied Marv in 1141, and in 1142 approached Nishapur. In 1156 Otsiz died, and his son Elarslon (1156-1172) continued to strengthen the Khorezm state and annexed Dikhistan to the surrounding lands.

His son Tekesh (1172-1200) conquered Nishapur in 1187 and Marv in 1192. In 1194, he defeated the Western Seljuk sultan and captured the entire eastern part of Iran. In 1195, Tekesh defeated the Abbasid caliph’s army and invaded Iraq. Khorezmshah Tekesh, who expanded the territory of his country twice and established a powerful state, can be recognized as the most talented ruler of Khorezm. One of the shortcomings of his policy was his patronage of the Kipchak military aristocracy. The Kipchaks tried to use the philanthropy of Tekesh’s wife to have more influence on state affairs.

Arbitrary interference of Turkish “commanders” in state affairs later caused the disintegration of Khorezm state during the reign of Tekesh’s son Muhammad. One of the shortcomings of his policy was his patronage of the Kipchak military aristocracy. The Kipchaks tried to use the philanthropy of Tekesh’s wife to have more influence on state affairs. Arbitrary interference of Turkish “commanders” in state affairs later caused the disintegration of Khorezm state during the reign of Tekesh’s son Muhammad. One of the shortcomings of his policy was his patronage of the Kipchak military aristocracy.

The Kipchaks tried to use the philanthropy of Tekesh’s wife to have more influence on state affairs. Arbitrary interference of Turkish “commanders” in state affairs later caused the disintegration of Khorezm state during the reign of Tekesh’s son Muhammad.

GENGHIGZKHAN’S CONQUEST OF CENTRAL ASIA

In 1215, Genghis Khan consolidated his victories in northern China and turned his attention to the west. In 1219, he ordered Jebenoyon to occupy Eastern Turkestan and Yettisuv. Genghis Khan’s army invades Movarounnahr, crushing the state of power. A large tribute is collected to strengthen Samarkand, but these funds are wasted, and the city walls are not strengthened.

In 1219, Genghis Khan marched to Otrorn, a large and strong fortress. Dividing his forces into two, he leaves one of them for the siege of O’tror, ​​and mobilizes the rest with his son Juchi as the leader to conquer Signak, Uzgen, Jenda and then Urganch. 5,000 soldiers were sent to the cities of Benaket and Dzhojand in Sirdarya region. Genghis Khan himself, with the main forces, will go to Bukhara by a short route through the waterless steppes. Bukhara was occupied in February 1220. Genghis Khan hands over the city to his soldiers to plunder.

The ominous news of the sad fate of Bukhara will soon spread throughout Movarounnahr. The population is in fear and danger. Khorezmshah Muhammad cowardly prepares to flee. Turk Togaykhan, who led the defenders of Samarkand, surrenders the city, hoping to transfer to the service of Genghis Khan. The Mongols invaded the city and destroyed it. Only a quarter of the population of Samarkand will survive. In April 1220, the Mongols occupied Khojand. Near Syrdarya they conquer Benakent. The ruler of Khojand, Temur Malik, fought valiantly against the Mongols. He reaches Urganch, fighting along the way with his few soldiers.

By the summer of 1220, the eastern and central part of Movarounnahr was conquered by the Mongols. Khorezmshah flees. He dies on an island on the southern coast of the Caspian Sea. In Urganch, Temur Malik heads the People’s Army for a short time. He successfully fights against the tip. In the fall of 1220, Chingizon attacked Termez. In the winter of 1221, the siege of Urgench begins. The inhabitants of the city heroically resist the enemy. The cities of Balkh and Marv will be conquered before Urgench surrenders. By the summer of 1221, the entire territory of Central Asia was under the control of the Mongols.

After the death of Genghis Khan, as a result of the distribution of the Mongol Empire among the heirs, Movarounnahr is recognized as the son of Genghis Khan. The local merchant Mahmud Yalvoch is entrusted with the task of collecting tribute for the Chigatai Palace. In Urganch, Temur Malik heads the People’s Army for a short time. He successfully fights against the tip. In the fall of 1220, Chingizon attacked Termez. In the winter of 1221, the siege of Urgench begins. The inhabitants of the city heroically resist the enemy. The cities of Balkh and Marv will be conquered before Urgench surrenders.

By the summer of 1221, the entire territory of Central Asia was under the control of the Mongols. After the death of Genghis Khan, as a result of the distribution of the Mongol Empire among the heirs, Movarounnahr is recognized as the son of Genghis Khan. The local merchant Mahmud Yalvoch is entrusted with the task of collecting tribute for the Chigatai Palace. In Urganch, Temur Malik heads the People’s Army for a short time. He successfully fights against the tip. In the fall of 1220, Chingizon attacked Termez. In the winter of 1221, the siege of Urgench begins. The inhabitants of the city heroically resist the enemy. The cities of Balkh and Marv will be conquered before Urgench surrenders.

 By the summer of 1221, the entire territory of Central Asia was under the control of the Mongols. After the death of Genghis Khan, as a result of the distribution of the Mongol Empire among the heirs, Movarounnahr is recognized as the son of Genghis Khan. The local merchant Mahmud Yalvoch is entrusted with the task of collecting tribute for the Chigatai Palace. In the fall of 1220, Chingizon attacked Termez. In the winter of 1221, the siege of Urgench begins. The inhabitants of the city heroically resist the enemy. The cities of Balkh and Marv will be conquered before Urgench surrenders. By the summer of 1221, the entire territory of Central Asia was under the control of the Mongols.

After the death of Genghis Khan, as a result of the distribution of the Mongol Empire among the heirs, Movarounnahr is recognized as the son of Genghis Khan. The local merchant Mahmud Yalvoch is entrusted with the task of collecting tribute for the Chigatai Palace. In the fall of 1220, Chingizon attacked Termez. In the winter of 1221, the siege of Urgench begins. The inhabitants of the city heroically resist the enemy. The cities of Balkh and Marv will be conquered before Urgench surrenders.

By the summer of 1221, the entire territory of Central Asia was under the control of the Mongols. After the death of Genghis Khan, as a result of the distribution of the Mongol Empire among the heirs, Movarounnahr is recognized as the son of Genghis Khan. The local merchant Mahmud Yalvoch is entrusted with the task of collecting tribute for the Chigatai Palace. By the summer of 1221, the entire territory of Central Asia was under the control of the Mongols.

After the death of Genghis Khan, as a result of the distribution of the Mongol Empire among the heirs, Movarounnahr is recognized as the son of Genghis Khan. The local merchant Mahmud Yalvoch is entrusted with the task of collecting tribute for the Chigatai Palace. By the summer of 1221, the entire territory of Central Asia was under the control of the Mongols. After the death of Genghis Khan, as a result of the distribution of the Mongol Empire among the heirs, Movarounnahr is recognized as the son of Genghis Khan. The local merchant Mahmud Yalvoch is entrusted with the task of collecting tribute for the Chigatai Palace.

Amir Timur State

In the middle of the 14th century, Temur Taragai, the son of Barlos Beki, appears on the stage of history as a great political figure. In alliance with Husayn, the grandson of the influential Turkish emir Kazaghon – the ruler of Samarkand, Temur begins a struggle to unify Movarounnahr and free it from the Mongol invasion. However, their relationship soon becomes strained. In 1370, after defeating the army of Amir Temur Husain, he was declared the Amir of Movarounnahr.

During the years 1372-1388, Amir Temur marches to Khorezm five times and achieves its complete subjugation. After that, he starts military campaigns to Iran, Iraq, Caucasus, Syria, Turkey. As a result, a huge empire will be built. However, the Golden Horde and the White Horde of the Juchi clan constantly challenge the power of the Temur state.

In 1379, Amir Temur helped Tokhtamish rise to the throne of the White Horde. However, after the victory over Mamai, Tokhtamysh took over the supreme power in the Golden Horde and began to attack the lands controlled by Temur. In response, Amir Temur defeated Tokhtamish in 1391 in Kunduzchi and in 1395 in Terek River Valley in the North Caucasus. As a result, Tokhtamysh’s forces were so weakened that a direct road was opened for Temur to Volgaboyi, the capital of the Golden Horde – Saray Berk. The city will be occupied.

In 1398-1399, a famous Indian campaign was carried out, and large booty was brought from that country. In 1400, Amir Temur started a war against the Turkish sultan Bayazid I and the Egyptian sultan Faraj. In 1402, the Ottoman sultan was brutally defeated near Ankara, delaying the conquest of Istanbul by the Ottoman Turks for 50 years. At the beginning of 1404, Temur prepared to march to China with his army of 200,000. However, on February 18, 1405, due to Temur’s death in Otror, ​​this campaign was not carried out.

During the reign of Amir Temur, economy, trade and culture flourished at a high level in Movarounnahr, the center of a huge empire. The XIV-XV century, the period of Timurid revival, is called the “golden age” in the history of Central Asia. This century gave world famous scientists, great poets and artists. In his “Bukhara Guestbook”, Isfakhani described the development of cotton farming in Samarkand and the production of cotton fiber and silk fabrics. Temur believed that the world would be prosperous thanks to merchants, and therefore spent a lot of money to build new roads and trade facilities.

 It was during Timur’s time that economic and political relations with the countries of the Near and Middle East, distant countries of Europe – Spain, France and England – expanded.

STATE OF TEMURI (1405-1450) History of Uzbeks

History of Uzbeks: For five years after the death of Amir Temur, fighting between khanates and dynasties continued in Movarounnahr. In 1409, Timur’s son Shahrukh (1376-1447) defeated his brother’s son, Khalil Sultan, and officially became the ruler of the only Timurid state. But in practice, this empire was divided into two separate states. Shahrukh ruled Khurasan, whose capital was Khirat, and Movarounnahr, whose capital was Samarkand, was ruled by his son Mirza Ulugbek (1394-1449). These two states were formed from the union of small feudal lands, which were ruled by the Timurids, who claimed great power.

Shahrukh’s grandson, Sultan Mohammad, who was appointed as the ruler of Iran, began to pursue an independent policy, and Shahrukh himself was forced to establish order in the country with the help of a large army. He carefully monitors the course of events in the lower Syrdarya, from where Uzbeks from the Kipchak steppe often attack Khorezm. In 1419, he supported Barak and helped him become the khan of the nomadic Uzbek tribe. With the help of Ulugbek, Khan Shermuhammad takes the throne of Mongolia after long disputes, but soon Ulugbek is forced to fight against his viceroys.

In 1425, Ulugbek defeated the Mongols. In 1427, when relations with Barak worsened, he organized an expedition to the lower Syrdarya, but as a result suffered a crushing defeat. After Shahrukh’s death in 1447, Ulugbek tried to conquer Khirot and Khurasan, but he failed. In 1448, he marched again with his son Abdullatif to Khirot and this time occupied the city. The conquest of Khurasan was hindered by the rebellion of Khurasan emirs and the invasion of Movarounnahr by nomadic Uzbeks led by Khan Abdulkhair.

In 1449, Abdullatif’s conspiracy against his father ended with the death of Ulugbek, and Abdullatif ascended the throne. But Abdullatif, hated by the nobles and the people, was killed on May 8, 1450 as a result of a conspiracy.

STATE OF TEMURI (1451-1507)

The emirs of Bukhara supported by the Naqshbandi sect led by Khoja Ahror (1404-1490) put forward their candidates for the throne against Timurid Abdullah supported by Turkish nobles. This claimant was Abusaid (1451-1468), grandson of Mironshah, son of Amir Temur. Abusaid persuaded the Khan of the nomadic Uzbeks, Abulkhair, to form an alliance. In the summer of 1451, a decisive battle took place near Samarkand. In this battle, nomadic Uzbeks won, Abdullah’s army was destroyed, and he himself was killed. Abusaid takes power in Msamarqand and Movarounnahr. Khoja Ahror is appointed as his close adviser.

Abu Sa’id could not occupy Khurasan, because the throne of Khirat was owned by Shahrukh’s grandson Abul Qasim Babur from 1452 until the end of his life, i.e. until 1457. Relations between the two rulers were hostile. In 1457, Abusaid took over the throne of Herat and achieved the temporary unification of the two countries.

In 1468, Abusaid went on a journey to conquer Iran, but did not return. Sultan Husain (1469-1506) seized the power of Herat using the opportunity. Abusaid’s sons leave the struggle for power and go to Mowarounnahr. In the second half of the 15th century, Movarounnahr experienced a period of political upheaval. From 1469 to 1494, Abusaid’s son Sultan Ahmad ruled in Samarkand (actually the power was under the control of Khoja Ahror and the Naqshbandi sect), Sultan Alimirza ruled in Bukhara, and Zahiriddin Muhammad Babur ruled in Fergana.

It is the nomads under the leadership of Babur Shaibonikhan who are actively resisting the invasion of the Uzbeks. In 1497, the Andijan army led by Babur occupied Samarkand. In the spring of 1501, Babur left Samarkand to fight with Shaibani Khan. however, he was defeated in a battle near the Kukhak River. Babur was forced to leave Mowaroonnahr and go to Kabul. Shaybonikhan begins a rapid attack on Movarounnahr and Khurasan. During 1501-1506, he conquered Samarkand, Tashkent, Kat and Buldumsoz, Urgench, Balkh. Sultan Husayn, who has lost his strength in old age, cannot seriously oppose Shaibani Khan.

Only after Khorezm was captured by Shaibani Khan, Sultan Husain decided to organize a campaign, but he died at the beginning of it. In Herat, two successors are appointed in his place – his sons Badi az-Zamin and Muzaffar Husayn. The differences between them accelerated the decline of Herat. In 1507, Shaybanion occupied Herat. Babur was forced to leave Mowaroonnahr and go to Kabul. Shaybonikhan begins a rapid attack on Movarounnahr and Khurasan. During 1501-1506, he conquered Samarkand, Tashkent, Kat and Buldumsoz, Urgench, Balkh.

Sultan Husayn, who has lost his strength in old age, cannot seriously oppose Shaibani Khan. Only after Khorezm was captured by Shaibani Khan, Sultan Husain decided to organize a campaign, but he died at the beginning of it. In Herat, two successors are appointed in his place – his sons Badi az-Zamin and Muzaffar Husayn. The differences between them accelerated the decline of Herat. In 1507, Shaybanion occupied Herat. Babur was forced to leave Mowaroonnahr and go to Kabul. Shaybonikhan begins a rapid attack on Movarounnahr and Khurasan.

During 1501-1506, he conquered Samarkand, Tashkent, Kat and Buldumsoz, Urgench, Balkh. Sultan Husayn, who has lost his strength in old age, cannot seriously oppose Shaibani Khan. Only after Khorezm was captured by Shaibani Khan, Sultan Husain decided to organize a campaign, but he died at the beginning of it. In Herat, two successors are appointed in his place – his sons Badi az-Zamin and Muzaffar Husayn. The differences between them accelerated the decline of Herat. In 1507, Shaybanion occupied Herat. Sultan Husayn, who has lost his strength in old age, cannot seriously oppose Shaibani Khan.

Only after Khorezm was captured by Shaibani Khan, Sultan Husain decided to organize a campaign, but he died at the beginning of it. In Herat, two successors are appointed in his place – his sons Badi az-Zamin and Muzaffar Husayn. The differences between them accelerated the decline of Herat. In 1507, Shaybanion occupied Herat. Sultan Husayn, who has lost his strength in old age, cannot seriously oppose Shaibani Khan. Only after Khorezm was captured by Shaibani Khan, Sultan Husain decided to organize a campaign, but he died at the beginning of it. In Herat, two successors are appointed in his place – his sons Badi az-Zamin and Muzaffar Husayn. The differences between them accelerated the decline of Herat. In 1507, Shaybanion occupied Herat.

THE STATE OF THE PEOPLE

Samarkand was the capital of the Shaibani state. During the reign of Ubaydullah Khan (1533-1539), great attention was paid to the development of science and culture, despite the complicated military and political situation. Ubaidullah Khan was a very literate person, he skillfully recited the Holy Qur’an and provided commentaries in Turkish, and he was also a master musician and a talented singer. The name of Abdullah Khan II (1557-1598) is associated with the only strong state-building movement. He conquered Bukhara in 1557, the capital was moved here in 1561, and the state began to operate under the name of the Khanate of Bukhara.

During the reign of Abdulla Khan II, the creative works flourished – a bridge was built over the Zarafshan river in Karmana, and a large number of madrasahs were built in Balkh and Bukhara. Around the mausoleum of Khan Imam Abu Bakr Saadi, a mosque, a madrasa, it forms a complex consisting of a residential building and other buildings. After the death of Abdullah Khan in 1598, the hope of creating a single Uzbek state faded. Pirmuhammad, the last representative of the Shaibani dynasty, was a mediocre person and did not have political influence among local rulers.

Unable to put an end to the resulting tyranny, he soon becomes a victim of mutual quarrels. Internal and external enemies of the Bukhara Khanate immediately took advantage of the crisis of central authority and fragmentation in the country. In the south, the Shah of Iran, Abbas Sabzavor, took possession of Mashhad and Herat, and appointed his governor Muhammad Ibrahim to the governorship of Balkh. Kazakh sultans conquered one of the largest territories, Tashkent. Khorezm regained its independence. “There was chaos and chaos in the whole country,

THE XIVA DYNASTY

1505 Shaibani Khan’s troops capture Khorezm. However, by 1512, the power of the khanate was transferred to Ilbarskhan, the head of another clan of nomadic Uzbeks. Since then, the Khanate of Khiva was created, its capital was the cities of Vazir, Kokhna Urganch and Khiva in different years. In addition to Khorezm, the Khanate included the territories of Mangishloq, Balkhan Mountains, Dehistan, Uzboy (Uzboy) and Middle Khorasan. In the struggle for the right to rule in Central Asia with the Bukhara Khanate, Khiva’s soldiers turned Karakol, Chorjoy, Vardanzi into a slum and reached Karmana. 1662 Khiva Khan Abulgazi made peace with Bukhara Khan Abulaziz after another battle.

But during the reign of his son Anusha Khan (1663-1687), the attacks on Bukhara continued again. In 1685, Khiva people managed to capture Samarkand. But Anusha Khan was defeated near Gijduvan and had to leave Samarkand. Soon Bukhara Khan organized a conspiracy against Anusha Khan, in which Anusha’s son Ernak (Ereng) also took part. 1687 Anusha was arrested and blinded. In 1668, Bukhara Khan Subhonquli subdued Khorezm and appointed Shahniyaz as its ruler – later he received the title of Khan.

Shahniyaz strove to strengthen the power of the Khanate and get rid of the dependence on Bukhara. For this purpose, in 1700, he secretly sent an ambassador from Bukhara to Peter I and asked him and his people to accept Russian citizenship. Khan Arab Muhammad (1702-1714) also seems to have hoped for Russian support. During the reign of Shergazi Khan (1715-1728yyy.), feudal conspiracies divided the state into pieces.

In 1717, the Khanate of Khiva managed to repel the attack of the Russian military expedition led by A. Bekovich-Cherkassky. After Shergozi, Ilbars (1728-1740) sat on the khanate throne. Taking advantage of the march of the Iranian king to Afghanistan and India, Ilbars attacked Khorasan. This event, as well as Khiva’s rejection of Iranian rule and military support for Bukhara, prompted Nadir Shah to march on Khorezm. Ilbars lost near Hazorasp. After a four-day siege, Nadirshah conquered the capital. A large part of Khiva’s army was included in Nadir Shah’s army. A representative of Nadirshah and an Iranian military garrison were left in Khiva.

But in the northern part of the khanate, Iranian rule was not strong. Among the islanders, Nurali, the son of Abul Khair, Khan of the Little Kazakh Ulus, who received Russian citizenship in 1730-1732, had a high position. In 1741, Khiva people rebelled against Iran. Khiva was liberated by the rebels and the representative and garrison were destroyed. Nurali took the Khanate throne. After learning about these events, Nadirshah ordered his son Nurul Mirza to march against Khorezm. The Korchalans of Khiva, who elevated Nurali to the throne, bow to Marv. According to their request, Nadir appoints Ilbars’ son Abu Muhammad to the Khanate of Khiva.

In the 40s of the 18th century, several khans were exchanged in Khiva. Nurali took the Khanate throne. After learning about these events, Nadirshah ordered his son Nurul Mirza to march against Khorezm. The Korchalans of Khiva, who elevated Nurali to the throne, bow to Marv. According to their request, Nadir appoints Ilbars’ son Abu Muhammad to the Khanate of Khiva. In the 40s of the 18th century, several khans were exchanged in Khiva. Nurali took the Khanate throne. After learning about these events, Nadirshah ordered his son Nurul Mirza to march against Khorezm. The Korchalans of Khiva, who elevated Nurali to the throne, bow to Marv.

 According to their request, Nadir appoints Ilbars’ son Abu Muhammad to the Khanate of Khiva. In the 40s of the 18th century, several khans were exchanged in Khiva.

KOKAN KHANY

At the beginning of the 18th century, Ferghana separated from Bukhara during the political crisis in the Ashtarkhanid Khanate. The independent state, whose center is in Kok, was first ruled by the Khojas, then by the Ming Khan dynasty. Khanate included Namangan, Kokan, Andijan and Margilon regions. Shahrukhbi from the Ming tribe of Uzbeks was declared the first ruler. 1721/22 Shahrukh dies due to conflicts between some groups of emirs. His son Abdurahimbiy (1721/17-1733) added Khojand and Andijan to the khanate, occupied Samarkand, Kattakorgan, Jizzakh. Osh was conquered during the reign of his brother Abdukarim (1733-1747/48).

The next twenty years are characterized by frequent changes of rulers. 1770 Kokan nobles settled Norbotani (1770-1800s. ) declared as the ruler. He succeeded in suppressing the attempts of the rulers of Chust, Namangan and Khojand to secede. Norbotabi also sends troops to Tashkent, but fails to subdue the city. Relative political calm was achieved under Norbotabi, which in turn paved the way for economic development. The irrigation system was expanded, new madrasahs were built, including the Mir Madrasah. Norbota’s son Olimbek (1800-1809) Mir madrasa was established. Norbota’s son Olimbek (1800-1809) Mir madrasa was established. Norbota’s son Olimbek (1800-1809)

He significantly raised the political status of Kokan. In his efforts to centralize power, Olim Khan relied on the mercenary army he formed from mountain Tajiks. He subdued Tashkent and Fergana, marched to Oratepa several times. As a result of the organized assassination, Olim Khan was killed and his brother Umar Khan (1809-1822) ascended the throne. He signed an agreement with Haidar, the emir of Bukhara, and annexed the lands to the lower reaches of the Syrdarya to his kingdom. At the intersection of Tashkent, Bukhara and Khiva roads, he built the Okmachit fortress.

Umar Khan, the owner of the title “Amir of Muslims” – “Amir ul Muslimin”, minted coins bearing his name. During his reign, an administrative system similar to that of the Bukhara Khanate was introduced in Kok. His 12-year-old son Muhammad Ali (Madali) (1822-1842) was appointed as Omar Khan’s heir. Madali started his rule by executing people he didn’t like even in his father’s time. He made several successful campaigns to Eastern Turkestan and Kashgar, managed to subjugate the Tajiks behind the Aloy mountain range. He was called “goose” (a fighter for faith) by the followers, but the priests considered him a person who defiled the religion and turned away from God.

The Khan’s family sent a complaint to the Bukhara emir. In 1840, through the emir’s ambassador, he sent a fatwa declaring Madali Khan an infidel for marrying his father’s wife to Kokhan. After that, Madali Khan started war against Bukhara, but after being defeated, recognized his Bukhara vassalage and renounced Khojand in favor of the Emirate. In 1842, Amir Nasrullah conquered Kokand and annexed the khanate to Bukhara. Madali Khan was executed and soon Tashkent was also captured.

Emirate of Bukhara Uzbekistan history

Bukhara Uzbekistan history: After the death of Rahimbiy in 1758, the Mangits nominated his uncle Daniyorbiy (1758-1785), the governor of Mionkol, to the throne of the Emirate. But he could not maintain a firm central authority. Quarrels between the supporters of the Mangits and their enemies, as well as the aspirations of local governors for independence, lasted for decades. In 1784, the people of Bukhara, who were dissatisfied with Daniyorbi’s absence, revolted and the emir handed over power to his son Shahmurad (1785-1800).

Shahmurad started the news with the execution of two big officials – Davlat Qushbegi and Nizamiddin Qazikalon in the Ark, witnessed by the courtiers. After that, Shahmurad ceremoniously handed over to the people of Bukhara a privileged document exempting them from several taxes. The text of the document was cut on a stone tablet. it was installed on the porch of the big mosque. Shahmurad introduced a new type of tax called “jol” (“jul”), which was used for the purpose of maintaining troops in case of war. After consolidating power in his hands, he renounced the title of khan and remained at the level of emir.

And Shahmurad raised Donishmandchi, a descendant of Genghis Khan, and later Abulgazi to the throne, but they had no real power. 1785 Shahmurad carried out a monetary reform and introduced the minting of 0.7 mishqal (3.36 g) full-value silver coins and gold coins of the same shape. He personally presided over the court. Shahmurad returned the territories on the left bank of Amudarya, including Balkh and Marv, to the Bukhara Emirate. In 1786, he suppressed the popular uprising in Karmana, then made successful campaigns to Shahrisabz and Khojand.

 Shahmurad prevailed over the Afghan ruler Temurshah and managed to keep the southern Turkestan under his control, mainly inhabited by Uzbeks and Tajiks. Amir Haydar (1800-1826) ) when he ascended the throne after his father, the whole Mavorunnahr was subject to his judgment. Haidar’s accession to the throne coincided with mass uprisings and executions. 1800 Marv Turkmen revolted. The internal quarrels were soon joined by the war between Kokan and Oratepa. Haidar managed to keep this city under his control. Under Amir Haydar, the political system consisted of a centralized monarchy that tended toward absolute power.

Amir was served by a bureaucratic court of up to 4,000 people. The size of the army has increased. There was an army of 12,000 soldiers in Bukhara alone. According to Ahmed Donish, Amir Haydar’s rule can be evaluated as “a period of non-stop feudal wars that occur every 3-6 months”.

In order to pave the way for him to power, his brothers Husayn and Umar were killed. Relying on the army and the clergy, Nasrullah fought decisively against feudal disunity in order to rein in the nobility. In the first month of his reign, he executed 50-60 people every day. Nasrullah managed to unify the provinces that were part of the emirate until now only in name.

He appointed “no-lineage” people who were loyal to him to rule the provinces. During the reign of Nasrullah, there were continuous wars between the Khanates of Khiva and Kokan for separate territories such as Marv, Chorjoi, Oratepa, and Khojand. The resistance of Shahrisabz and Kitab rulers was especially strong. After several military campaigns, by 1853 they were subdued by Bukhara.

UZBEKISTAN IN THE 20-40S OF THE 20TH CENTURY

In 1924, Uzbekistan became part of the Soviet Union as one of the republics. In March 1927, the first Constitution of Uzbekistan was adopted. In those years, in the development of the national economy and culture, the inter-republican governing bodies – the Central Asian Economic Council (1923) – in a short time, the tragic consequences of the civil war were eliminated in the republic. The industry developed rapidly. The most important changes took place in the fields of mechanical engineering, metal processing and energy.

In the period from 1928 to 1942, 515 industrial enterprises and power plants were put into operation. Among them were Chirchik Electrochemical Plant, Tashkent Agricultural Plant, Kuvasoy Cement and Lime Plant, Stone Textile Plant and others. Land and water reform was carried out in 1925-1929. Agriculture and irrigation were completely renovated, new canals and reservoirs were completed. By 1941, the literacy level of the population of Uzbekistan was 95%. Turkestan State University (1920) became a major center of higher education. By the end of the 20s, there were dozens of research centers with more than a thousand scientific employees. Since 1930, Tashkent has become the capital of Uzbekistan.

In February 1937, a new constitution of the UZSSR was adopted. In accordance with the new constitution, elections were held to the governing bodies of the republic under the leadership of Y. Okhunboboev and F. Khojaev. The daily life of the republic, like the situation in the entire USSR, was under the slogan of the rise of the cult of the personality of Stalin and the strengthening of totalitarian management methods. Mass repression in Uzbekistan began with the arrest of prominent party and state figures. Political authorities initiated a criminal case against F. Khojaev, A. Ikromov, D. Manjar and others with false accusations.

In August-September 1937, hundreds of people were arrested, including the leaders of the Communist Party of Uzbekistan S. Boltaboev, I. Khudoykulov, A. Seher, M. Shermukhamedov, M. Usmanov and others. until the spring of 1938

DURING THE WAR WITH UZBEKISTAN (1941-1945)

On June 22, 1941, Germany broke the non-aggression pact and launched a surprise attack on the Soviet Union. On June 23, a gathering of thousands of people took place in Tashkent. In it, the people of Tashkent expressed their readiness to mobilize all their efforts at the front and behind the front for the victory over fascism. In the first months of the war, more than 32,000 applications for going to the front were submitted in Uzbekistan. By November 1941, 14 national brigades – 9 separate rifle and 5 cavalry brigades – were formed in the republic.

In 1941-1943, Uzbekistan took in 1 million refugees, including 200,000 children, evacuated from Russia, Ukraine and Belarus due to the war. The martial law required taking emergency measures to strengthen the rear of the front. More than a hundred industrial enterprises were moved to Uzbekistan. Among them were the Leningrad textile machinery factory, Rostselmash, Krasny Aksay, Stalingrad chemical plant, Moscow factories “Pod’emnik”, “Elektrostanok” and many other enterprises.

By the end of 1941, more than 50 evacuated enterprises were put into operation. In the middle of 1942, all enterprises moved to Uzbekistan began to work at full capacity, supplying military equipment, ammunition, and clothing for the front. Industrial enterprises of the republic were re-adapted to the production of defense products from the first days of the war.

Including Tashselmash, steam locomotive repair plant, Chirchik electrochemistry and others. During the 1941-1945 war, 280 production enterprises were put into operation in Uzbekistan. In 1943, the total production volume of the national economy of the republic increased by 75%. The construction of the Bekobad metallurgical plant began in the fall of 1942. Based on discovered tungsten, molybdenum and copper reserves, the non-ferrous metallurgy sector was formed. The use of Almalyk copper mine has been started. During 1940-1943, electricity production increased by 3.5 times due to the construction of new power plants.

From 1941 to 1945, 280 new enterprises covering all branches of industry were completed. Uzbekistan has become one of the main centers of military potential of the country. More than 2000 aircraft to the front, 1,

22 research institutes, 16 higher educational institutions, 2 libraries were transferred to Uzbekistan. On November 4, 1943, the ceremonial opening of the Academy of Sciences took place. TN Kariniyozov was elected as its first President. By the end of 1944, the Academy of Sciences included 22 scientific institutions. By 1943, there were 41 higher educational institutions operating in the republic, including 12 transferred ones, 52 of which were special secondary educational institutions. During the war years, more than 20 thousand specialists were trained in them. More than a million Uzbeks fought on the war fronts. Dozens of national combat units were established.

Many of them were awarded with orders and received the titles of guards. Uzbek fighters of the Brest fortress (D.Abdullaev, T.Aliev, Isaev,

UZBEKISTAN IN 1945-1991.

In the post-war period, the process of multi-industry industry, supported by developed transport and energy systems, continued in Uzbekistan. Cities were becoming scientific and cultural centers. In 1947, the State Academic Theater of Uzbekistan was opened, and in 1964, the Opera and Ballet Theater was opened in Samarkand. In the village hearth, intensive methods were used and mechanized. By 1984, 4,175,000 hectares of arable land had been developed, of which 2,056,000 hectares were cotton fields. The republic was led by U. Yusupov, A. Niyazov, N. Muhiddinov, and Sh. Rashidov in different years after the war.

In the 1980s, the USSR faced a political and ideological crisis. Escaping from the center was on the rise. By this time, the peoples living in the territory of the USSR had reached such a level of economic and national consciousness that economic, state and political dependence on the union had become a condition that held back the further development of each republic. New conditions were needed for the expected perspective.

INDEPENDENT UZBEKISTAN

Independence of Uzbekistan on August 31, 1991 was realized under complex political and socio-economic conditions. In particular, the colonial system, which ruled for 130 years, hindered the independent development of the Republic.

The declaration of independence put the task of carrying out fundamental reforms before the people and the government. As a result of internal and external reforms carried out by the government under the leadership of President I.Karimov, Uzbekistan became an independent country in the world community. Uzbekistan has determined its own development path in a short period of time.

The “Uzbek model” developed and implemented by I. Karimov laid the groundwork for the socio-economic development of the country. Within a short period of time, grain and oil independence was achieved, Uzbekistan turned from an agrarian country into a rapidly developing country that exports modern equipment and technologies. The correctness of Uzbekistan’s path was proven once again during the “world financial and economic crisis” that began in 2008. The “Uzbek model” successfully emerged from the crisis period and received high positive evaluations from international financial organizations and experts.

Historical experience shows that no country can develop without the world community. As a result of comprehensive foreign policy, Uzbekistan was recognized by more than 180 countries of the world, diplomatic relations were established with more than 130 countries, today Uzbekistan is a member of prestigious international organizations such as UN, CIS, SCO.

Today, Uzbekistan cooperates with the countries of Europe, North and South America, the Middle East and Asia in the bilateral and multilateral economic, political and cultural spheres.

In the Republic of Uzbekistan, according to its constitution, people are guaranteed equal rights regardless of nationality, language, and religion. Today, more than a hundred representatives of different nationalities and peoples live in peace in the Republic, the necessary conditions have been created for them.

Read History of Kazakhstan 

 

References

OʻZBEKISTON TARIXI (uzbekistan-geneva.ch)